The Brain: The Marriage of Neuroscience and Educational Strategies – Fact or (Science) Fiction

By Montie W. Stone

Recent advancements in the field of neuroimaging have changed the way many scientists are “seeing” the brain. Although there is much controversy in educational circles about how far this science can be applied to help our children learn, there is reason for hope and excitement.

Picture this scenario. Charlie’s mom dreads parent-teacher conferences. She cannot understand what else she could possibly do to help Charlie succeed in school. He works so hard and really wants to learn, but school is an uphill battle for him. His teacher dreads these meetings also. She wonders how to explain why Charlie is falling further and further behind even though she feels like she has tried everything. The frustration is overwhelming. No one seems to be able to get to the root of Charlie’s learning difficulties. Then Charlie’s teacher realizes there is one more tool in her educational arsenal and she decides to turn to neuroscience to answer her questions. Her plan is to suggest the use of neuroimaging to uncover what is happening inside Charlie’s brain and develop an educational intervention plan based on the findings.

Is this science fiction? Actually, neuroscience is on the cusp of making this scenario a reality. Neuroimaging is changing the way we look at the brain – literally. In the not-so-distant past scientists used animal and autopsied human brains to study brain functions. This method had serious drawbacks because so many inferences must be made when comparing an animal brain to a human one or a nonfunctioning brain to a functioning one. Real-time imaging makes it possible to observe the brain while it operates. According to Dr. Robert Sylwester in Brain Imaging Technology: Observing Our Brain at Work, “advances in computerized imaging technology have made it possible to… observe, amplify, record, rapidly analyze, and graphically display the brain…in very specific brain regions. This technology has revolutionized the brain and mind research… Imaging technology was primarily used in medical diagnosis initially, but it is being increasingly used in pure neuroscience and psychological research.”

Types of imaging
There are many different types of imaging technologies available to scientists. In order to not confuse the issue, this article will deal with only those that can be used for educational purposes. The four most suitable imaging technologies used to examine patterns of brain activity are functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron-emission topography (PET), electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). The following is a basic description of how each imaging technique works:

1. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) uses radio waves and magnetic fields to show blood flow in areas of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Research has shown that areas with increased blood flow indicate increased “activation” when the subject is carrying out a task. Scientists can then compare the brain function of people who do well on a task with those who are having difficulties. The fMRI can also be used to compare a person’s brain before and after educational intervention. Because of its clarity and its safe, non-invasive nature, the fMRI currently is a popular choice in neuroimaging technology.
2. Positron emission tomography (PET) uses a small amount of radioactively tagged glucose (the brain’s principal food) that has been injected into the bloodstream to reveal the brain areas that are the most active (those with the most glucose). Dr. Jagan Chilakamarri, an Atlanta-based psychiatrist, states that this method is undesirable with children because of the use of ionizing radiation.
3. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical brain waves via electrodes placed on the skull. These electrodes can now send wireless signals to a nearby
4. computer which may allow a researcher to observe brain activity outside of the laboratory, possibly even in a classroom. Dr. Chilakamarri warns that, to date, the EEG is not confirmatory and lacks sufficient detail to be used for differentiating neuropsychiatric disorders.
5. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain. Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), which are very sensitive magnetometers, are used to measure these extremely small magnetic fields. These measurements, used in both research and clinical settings, assist surgeons in localizing a pathology, assist researchers in determining the function of various parts of the brain, give neurofeedback and perform other purposes.

Images taken before and after intensive remedial reading intervention using MEG technology Contributed by Dr. Panagiotis Simons, professor of the Univ. of Crete

The graphic displays in imaging technology typically use the color spectrum to show the activity levels in the areas of the brain – the red end of the spectrum shows a higher level of activity and the purple end represents lower activity. While statistical data varies between research groups and there is no uniform code as to what exactly “more red” versus “less red” means to each particular study, researchers can use the images to apply what they already know about the functions of different parts of the brain (See sidebar) and determine where a problem may lie.

What the images reveal
The American Psychological Association (APA) recognizes the importance of this field of research in the article From Brain Scan to Lesson Plan published in Monitor on Psychology. This article offers a glimpse inside Haskins Laboratory, a private, non-profit research institute with a primary focus on speech, language and reading and their biological basis. Yale research scientist, Kenneth Pugh, Ph.D., leads the research end of Haskins, and he sees great possibilities in what can be learned from brain imaging. “We’re bringing together imaging with sophisticated cognitive-behavioral work to better understand how reading failure occurs and, from this, better techniques to correct it. That’s good use of red dots” [referring to the red dots representing high levels of activity in a brain scan]. Much of the research thus far in neuroimaging is in the field of language-based learning issues and the findings can be very useful in planning educational interventions.

Dr. Pugh works closely with Drs. Bennett and Sally Shaywitz who are experts in the study of dyslexia. “You can actually reorganize the brain,” says Dr. Sally Shaywitz, “and help the children to develop that left word-forming area that’s so critical for fluency.” For Shaywitz, it is exciting that “we’ve been able to now demonstrate that in children who are dyslexic, they don’t develop that word forming area but they do develop compensatory regions on the right side of the brain and also in the front that allow them to read. But not automatically so that they can become highly accurate readers, but by the investment of an extraordinary amount of time and energy. They can get there, but their route is much slower and more inefficient.” Many researchers have noted the correlation between this inefficiency and the extra time needed for a person with dyslexia to read.

Gordon F. Sherman, Ph.D., a renowned neuroscientist with over 25 years of research experience, explains that people with dyslexia “under-activate” in the left temporal, parietal and occipital lobe, where language is learned. Researchers also found that people diagnosed with dyslexia “overactivate” in the left frontal areas and certain right-hemisphere areas. The dyslexic brain tends to use both hemispheres for language tasks which slows them down considerably. More important, research has found that the brain can change when educational intervention is used. That bears repeating – brains can change! Sherman notes that, fundamentally, brain structure does not change. However, the brain does change functionally in two ways: first through the formation of new neuron connections and, second, through the number of synapses and their efficiency.

Current research does not only address dyslexia and other language-based learning issues. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), math deficiencies, the role of memory, attention, emotion and motivation in learning, as well as a host of other areas are on the forefront of this relatively new use of neuroscience. At the Service Hospitalier Frederic Joliet in Paris, neuropsychologist Stanislas Dehaene, Ph.D., is using fMRI to show that language and memorized math facts coexist in the same area of the brain (the left frontal lobe), whereas estimations or “intuitive” math is processed elsewhere (the left and right parietal lobes, in the rear of the brain). His theory is that children who have difficulties in reading can learn math competently using a nonverbal format. Lisa Rowe, Ed.S., a school psychologist at the University of Florida and the Nemours Children’s Clinic, also observes children with math problems to determine if they have difficulty using a non-verbal math system. With her findings, she hopes to alleviate math disabilities with specifically designated educational interventions.

The impact of neuroimaging on teaching methods
Along with diagnosing and treating learning disabilities, neuroimaging can influence teaching methods and enable children to use their brains more efficiently. “Imaging offers the chance to document a child’s learning disability, as well as to catch the disability early and change it with remediation,” says Dr. Duane Alexander, director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). “It also has the potential to help researchers develop more successful learning approaches in general.”

David Sousa, a leading proponent of “brain-based education” and author of How the Brain Learns: A Classroom Teacher’s Guide, believes that teaching strategies can be improved significantly by using neuroscience. These new strategies can then “make the teaching/learning process more efficient, effective, and enjoyable.” In addition, the insight gained by seeing the brain at work can also help educators strengthen and refine educational strategies already in use. As research continues, the impact of these strategies on educational interventions and practices will be seen in a clearer light.

Where there is advancement, there is controversy
“Brain-based education,” or the use of brain research findings to enhance teaching and learning in education, is not without controversy. Many scientists and educators believe either the brain is too complex or imaging is the wrong tool to use in making educational decisions. Other researchers who see merits in using imaging research in the field of learning insist that more psychologists should be involved. Many also feel that, in order to use neuroimaging responsibly, educators need to become more familiar with brain functions, increase their skills in study assessment, and incorporate neuroscience with cognitive psychology and educational research. Dr. Steven Hyman, director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) says that images from brain research need to be used to test hypotheses from cognitive psychology studies. Others claim that imaging can never reveal as much as cognitive psychology.

John Bruer, Ph.D. is president of the James S. McDonnell Foundation, a sponsor of biomedical, behavioral sciences and educational research. He says, “There’s a wealth of cognitive psychology research that’s more useful for improving teaching than simplistic brain images.” But even Bruer concedes that quality neuroimaging research can lead to better educational programs. What is needed, however, is a collaborative effort utilizing the experts in neuroscience, cognitive psychology and education. Ideally, cognitive psychologists could serve as liaisons between neuroscientists and educators.

While taking scientific ideas out of context can lead to damaging pseudoscientific educational strategies, neither Bruer nor other critics call for ignoring the possibilities of brain research. According to Ashish Ranpura, a neuroscience journalist from Yale University, “Neuroscience has a significant role in helping children… As scientific understanding of brain function advances, the list of conditions that research can approach will grow as well.” It is important to remember that neuroscience is a tool to be used in conjunction with other proven educational and psychological methods of research.

The future and hope We take our brain for granted until some thing goes awry. When our own “Charlie” is frustrated and needs help, we then look to whatever sources we may have at our disposal to understand the problem and work toward a solution. When we are talking about our own children, it becomes real. We are years from being able to use brain imaging technology in the classroom, but the advances scientists have made so far give us hope. Dr. Sally Shaywitz puts it all into perspective when she says, “It’s about real people who have to live with something that people don’t see, and that’s why I guess it’s been a really wonderful thing that the science has progressed so far, and that we actually now have the ability to see the brain at work, so we can actually see what is happening at the most basic levels.”

Montie W. Stone is a writer and editor for Kids Enabled.

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